Review of particle radiation environment of the Earth-Moon space and its impact on Lunar surficial material generation
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摘要:
由于没有全球磁场和稠密大气保护，月球直接受宇宙线、太阳风和地球风粒子的轰击.了解月球空间粒子辐射的特性、粒子的来源和传输等过程，本身是亟待解决的空间科学基础问题，同时还可帮助更好地提供预报和预警，为保障探月和载人登月等活动的安全提供理论参考；此外，月球空间辐射环境中的粒子与月表作用产生的水等物质对载人登月和月球基地意义重大，且月表物质保存了空间环境较为完整的信息和演化历史，对研究地月系统及太阳系其他天体(乃至系外行星)的宜居性与演化，也具有重要的科学价值.本文在简要总结地月空间粒子辐射环境研究现状的基础上，重点分析了近月粒子辐射环境及其对月表物质所产生的影响，梳理了宇宙线、太阳能量粒子事件、太阳风、地球风以及月源粒子等不同辐射的来源和传输机制，这些粒子与月表作用产生水、赤铁矿、中性原子等物质的过程，以及相关过程对月球空间环境的影响、对地月系统演化的启示等关键科学问题，并提出了解决问题所面临的技术难点，最后对未来可能的重点研究内容进行了展望，可为后续月球探测任务(例如嫦娥四期和国际月球科研站等)相关领域科技规划提供一定的参考.
Abstract:Without the protection of a global magnetic field and dense atmosphere, the Moon is directly exposed to the radiation of cosmic rays, solar wind, and Earth wind particles. Understanding the characteristics of lunar space radiation, including the source and transport of particles, can help us understand fundamental questions such as space particle acceleration. Additionally, it can also provide theoretical support for better forecasting and early warning to ensure the safety of robotic and human lunar explorations. Meanwhile, the interaction between particles in the lunar space radiation environment and the lunar surface can produce materials such as water, which is of great significance to the manned lunar landing and the establishment of a lunar base. These materials may have preserved information about space environment, providing insights into habitability and evolution history of the planet-moon systems in our solar system. At present, some progresses have been made in understanding the Earth-Moon space particle radiation environment and its impact on lunar surface materials. Based on a summary of the current research and future perspectives, this paper reviews the key scientific questions about the lunar particle radiation environment (cosmic rays, solar energetic particles, solar wind, Earth wind, and lunar space particle and radiation environment) and the interaction processes with lunar surface materials and their products (including water, hematite, energetic neutral atoms, etc.), and identifies some key research priorities in the field for future studies and lunar exploration missions.
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图 2
地月空间典型的质子能谱，其中异常宇宙线能谱是旅行者1号在57 AU处的观测结果.各种能谱是基于文献(Christian et al., 1995; Durante et al., 2019; Mewaldt et al., 2005; Poppe et al., 2017)中的数据给出
Figure 2.
Typical proton energy spectra in the Earth-Moon space. The ACR spectrum was observed by Voyager 1 at 57 AU. All spectra were based on the data from Christian et al. (1995), Durante et al. (2019), Mewaldt et al. (2005), and Poppe et al. (2017)
图 3
(a) 1994年1月15日氧离子事件发生时超热氢离子、氦离子、氧离子能谱分布，右上角显示的积分时间包括高能氧离子爆发事件，可以看出在250 keV时氧的通量最高(Zong, 1999)；(b)高能氧离子事件在晨昏方向(Y)(第一栏)和南北方向(Z)(第二栏) 的发生率分布，第三栏显示了高能氧离子事件随地磁活动(Kp指数)的分布(Fu and Zong, 2006)
Figure 3.
(a) Particle energy spectra for supra-thermal H+, He, and oxygen ions versus energy obtained for the plasmoid event on Jan.15, 1994. The integration time indicated on the upper right includes the oxygen burst. Note the well-developed oxygen peak at 250 keV (Zong, 1999); (b) Histograms of normalized occurrence probabilities for the dawn-dusk (Y) (top panel) and south-north (Z) (middle panel) distribution of energetic oxygen events. The third panel shows the distribution of energetic oxygen events versus geomagnetic activity (Kp index) (Fu and Zong, 2006)
图 4
利用ARTEMIS卫星数据得到的太阳风和地球风平均能谱(改自Wang et al., 2021a)
Figure 4.
Mean energy spectra of solar wind and Earth wind derived from ARTEMIS observations (Modified from Wang et al., 2021a)
图 5
磁层内的氧离子的4条逃逸路径(改自Seki et al., 2001)
Figure 5.
Four escape routes of oxygen ions in the magnetosphere (Modified from Seki et al., 2001)
图 6
月球磁异常反射质子通量分布(Lue et al., 2011)
Figure 6.
Flux map of protons deflected by lunar magnetic anomalies (Lue et al., 2011)
图 7
银河宇宙线与无大气天体(如月球)表面物质相互作用示意图(改自Mesick et al., 2018)
Figure 7.
Illustration of interactions between galactic cosmic rays and airless body (e.g., the Moon) surface materials (Modified from Mesick et al., 2018)
图 8
在中等太阳活动强度时期GCR轰击月表产生的次级中子通量谱(Mesick et al., 2018)
Figure 8.
Secondary neutron flux spectra produced by GCR bombardment of the lunar surface during periods of moderate solar activity (Mesick et al., 2018)
图 9
LP卫星对月球轨道热中子的观测结果(Peplowski et al., 2016)
Figure 9.
Lunar thermal neutron map observed by Lunar Prospector, in which color represents the thermal neutron count rate, "A#" and "L#" are the lunar soil sampling positions of the Apollo mission and the Luna mission, respectively (Peplowski et al., 2016)
图 10
月球南极中子异常区(Spudis et al., 2013)
Figure 10.
The neutron anomalies at the lunar south pole (Spudis et al., 2013)
图 11
太阳风和地球风物质和能量向月球的传输示意图(史全岐等, 2022)
Figure 11.
Illustration of mass and energy transport to the Moon by solar wind and Earth wind (Shi et al., 2022)
表 1
地月空间中能到达月表附近的辐射粒子来源
Table 1.
Sources of radiation particles that can reach the lunar surface in Earth-Moon space
粒子类型 来源 带电粒子 1.宇宙线
2.太阳能量粒子事件SEP
3.地球风能量粒子
4.以上粒子与月壤作用的反照带电粒子中性粒子
(中子、γ等)1.太阳中子
2.GCR/SEP等与月表作用的反照中子/γ等
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表 2
太阳风和地球风中带电粒子在成分、能量以及数量上的区别
Table 2.
The difference between the solar wind and the Earth wind in composition, energy, and number density of charged particles
近月等离子体环境 太阳风 地球风 成分 H+占95%，He++占4%, O6+O7+占4%% … H+, He+, O+, NO+，N+，O2+等动态变化 能量 ~1 keV 几十eV~几百keV 数密度 (1~几十个)/cm-3 (0.1~几个)/cm-3* 注：*因为目前测量手段所限，地球风中低能粒子的密度可能比预计的更高(Engwall et al., 2009).
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表 3
不同粒子源在月表造成的剂量当量(改自Hayatsu et al., 2008)
Table 3.
Dose equivalents caused by different particle sources on the lunar surface (Modified from Hayatsu et al., 2008)
粒子种类 月表高地(A16)的周围剂量当量H*(10)[mSv/yr] 月海(A11) 太阳活动极小年 太阳活动平均年 太阳活动极大年 太阳活动平均年 快中子 52.9 37.8 18.2 40.2 超热中子 19.6 13.9 6.8 16.0 热中子 0.35 0.24 0.13 0.15 中子 72.9 51.9 25.4 56.3 GCR 233.8 168.6 65.8 168.6 伽马射线 3.3 2.5 1.6 2.5 合计 310.0 233.0 92.8 227.4
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